Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 16

Business Law - Essay Example One such case alluded in the article was chosen in 1991 at California in which an engineer named Mark Borough California, Inc. disputed against counseling engineers. These architects planned a fake lake however its liner fizzled and thusly a $5 million sum was asserted against the designers. So the specialists took the position that the authoritative understanding included the constraint of risk provision that limited their obligation to their charge earned on the undertaking i.e., $67,640 and the preliminary court concurred with the designers. Succeeding cases supporting ‘LOL’ incorporate Valhal Corp. v. Sullivan Associates, Inc., Union Oil Company of California v. John Brown E&C,., and R1 Associates, Inc., v. Goldberg-Zoino and Associates, Inc. Albeit such cases likewise exist where the case was toppled by the court, for example Ricciardi v. Straight to the point. This case was settled in New York city in which a house proprietor prosecuted for the disappointment i n issue recognizable proof in the water infringement in the storm cellar. The LOL provision obliged the risk of architects for this situation to just a measure of $375 however for this situation the statement was managed to be as invalid as it didn’t involved the alternative for the house proprietor to purchase total insurance and the proviso was given in the examination report after the review had been done (Fishman, 2011). The article gave the approaches to expand the odds of implementation of this provision. It has been introduced that if the proviso hosts been embedded into by gatherings having equivalent solidarity to deal, and its drafting has been explained, it will prompt authorization except if the state law in spite of this condition exist or it has been concluded that the proviso implementation had been unconscionable. The article suggests exchange of the LOL condition among the two gatherings. The constraint offered on the obligation ought to be fair. The article advertised

Sophisticated narrative review of Sue Monk Kidd, The Secret life of Essay

Modern account survey of Sue Monk Kidd, The Secret existence of Bees - Essay Example is a significant character or just a reference bullet to the activity, the white lady is, by goodness of her representative significance in Southern history and culture, a noteworthy nearness in books about the Civil Rights Movement. This may be illogical since the white man would appear the feasible curve foe in the social liberties dilemmaâ€or more awful, center around the white lady may show up as an endeavor to usurp the centrality of African Americans for the gathering farthest expelled from social liberties issues. But, the white lady was at the focal point of those issues. The white lady is fundamental to social equality issues and to fiction that explicitly and considerably relies on the Civil Rights Movement for material since she was the supporting shafts and mainstays of the way of life the Movement looked to disassemble. That the connection between the white lady and the Civil Rights Movement has been disregarded recommends just that the noteworthiness of this relationship has been some way or another dominated, not that it is irrelevant. In 2002, a novel hit the New York Times smash hit list. The setting was the rustic South in the late sixties, soon after the section of the Civil Rights Act. The primary characters, take asylum with a group of ladies who live in a house on the edges of town. The book is Sue Monk Kidd’s The Secret Life of Bees. Its courageous woman, Lily Owens, in this way accomplishes profound amazing quality through mutual living with a group of ladies, so called strict ceremonies, and racial joining. Kidd’s epic epitomizes the two patterns that have risen most obviously in American women’s fiction in the course of the last quarter of the twentieth-century: the proceed onward the piece of ladies scholars to an inventive and individualized strict practice instead of a conventional regulated one, and the assessment of the convergences of religion, sexual orientation and race as they shape personality. Everything from the novel line to the references of the Civil Rights Movement happening in 1960’s

Where to Eat When Visiting Campus

Where to Eat When Visiting Campus Student tested, family approved! These restaurants  are campus favorites for students. Ranging from sit downs to fast food, the University of Illinois has it all. Seven Saints Located at  32 E Chester Street in Champaign, this sit down restaurant  by day and bar by night is incredible. It features crazy sliders, such as the Chicago Style Hot Dog Slider and has combos to mix and match. I had the BLT, and it was to die for. It also offers vegetarian options such as a hummus plate, grilled cheese, or fish tacos (for you pescaterians). Offering an extensive drink menu, as well, it will impress your whole family. View this post on Instagram Attention IL Marathon runners! Carb up with our Penne Puttanesca and Grilled Chicken for dinner tonight! If youre not running tomorrow, you should probably have the pasta with the amazing Mondavi Cab aged in Bourbon Barrels! #illinoismarathon #chambana #carbup A post shared by Seven Saints (@7_saints) on Apr 29, 2016 at 2:21pm PDT Destihl Restaurant and Brew Works Every time my family visits me, they ask to eat here. My dads personal favorite is the Cuban Sandwich, and my mothers is the Berries and Goat Cheese Salad. Lunch combos are offered, and the stone oven pizzas are delicous. Again, Destihl is sure to have something for even the pickiest of eaters. View this post on Instagram It was a good morning ? #spoonfeed [vanilla cinnamon baked french toast] ?: @charlotte_spiro A post shared by Spoon University UIUC (@spoon_uiuc) on Sep 21, 2016 at 9:33am PDT KoFusion This one is for the sushi lovers (like me!). With a modern vibe on sushi, I have yet to hear a single bad thing about KoFusion. Located in both Champaign and Urbana, it is easy to find a KoFusion no matter where your tour ends. The best part? There is a dollar sushi portion of the menu to allow customers to taste a variety of rolls. View this post on Instagram Do you want to try our Flaming Phoenix? How about our Fusion Maki? Or our Rainbow Roll? The best way to spend your weekend is with #sushi! Head on down to #KoFusion today! #nightout #greatfood #drinks A post shared by Ko Fusion Downtown Champaign (@ko_fusion) on Oct 29, 2015 at 3:02pm PDT Which Wich Again, this one made the list for my dad. Which Wich changed the sandwich game. When entering the restaurant, the customer grabs a paper bag from a protein section: turkey, pork, egg, veggie, etc.  Then, on their bag, they use a Sharpie to mark what ingredients they want, what bread type, how they want is cookedâ€"basically, any modification they want. Why is this technique so successful? It leads to quick and accurate service. View this post on Instagram Around here, it’s always turkey season. #FirstDayOfFall A post shared by Which Wich (@whichwich) on Sep 22, 2016 at 6:08pm PDT Maize Mexican Grill Maize featured authentic and simple Mexican food. All of their recipes are made from scratch and are very tasty. If you dont believe me, just look at their ratings: 4.7 stars on Facebook Review, #5 restaurant in Champaign on Tripadvisor, and 4.5 stars on Yelp. View this post on Instagram Proper representation of our weekend ?? #maize #posthappyhour #postblock #spoonfeed ?: @juliacatalano A post shared by Spoon University UIUC (@spoon_uiuc) on Sep 19, 2016 at 10:07am PDT Firehaus With both a bar area and a sit down section, Firehaus is the best of both worlds. My personal favroite is the Veggie Wrap with a side of Caesar dressing. Firehaus offers an energetic atmosphere and a true campus experience for all. View this post on Instagram Firehaus Cobb Salad Grilled Chicken Avocado Bleu Cheese Crumbles Bacon Boiled Eggs Black Olives | Tomato | Cucumber #champaign #urbana #restaurant #salad #illinois #uofi #firehaus #campus #bar A post shared by Firehaus (@firehaus.uofi) on Feb 11, 2016 at 1:55pm PST Wingin Out For the wing lover in us all. Wingin Out is a small restaraunt with minmal seating, but the wings are out of this world. A campus favorite for late night dining, many students would consider this their go to. They also serve milkshakes and sides. I would reccomend the Mac and Cheese Bites. View this post on Instagram Forget #TacoTuesday everyones talking about #WinginOutWednesday ?? See you tomorrow, friends! #CoMo #ColumbiaMO #Mizzou #UofI #uiuc #champaignil #illini A post shared by Wingin Out (@wingin_out) on Feb 24, 2015 at 6:33pm PST Mia Zas For a faster bite to eat, Mia Zas is a great choice. It is create your own based, and offers paninis, pastas, salads, and pizzas. You can choose from an extensive list of toppings to help customize your order, which is a huge plus. Located in the heart of Campustown, it is sure to provide a real-life expereince for any prospective student. View this post on Instagram Youve stolen a ~pizza~ our heart! Come get your V OWN ?? shaped ?now, to celebrate VALENTINES DAY A post shared by Mia Zas Cafe (@champaign_mia_zas) on Feb 12, 2016 at 1:16pm PST Merry Anns Diner A university classic. With locations on and off  campus, this old-fashioned diner will give your parents that nostalgic touch theyve been looking for. The food is inexpensive and is incredibly yummy. The best part: Theyre open 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. View this post on Instagram stop number two on the champaign/urbana trip is a 2am diner run. note, my burger side was an order of chili cheese fries and nick ts burger side was an order of pancakes ? @saibaa @erindittmer @th0mp A post shared by Nick Murway (@nickmurway) on Aug 6, 2016 at 7:48am PDT Rachel Class of 2020 I am studying Middle Grades Education with concentrations in Social Sciences and Literacy in the College of Education. Although I now reside in Champaign, I am originally from Vernon Hills, a Northwest suburb of Chicago.

The Micro And Macro Factors Affecting The Company

Rachelle Ahmad Talaye Attaran Alexander Mori Laurence Zweegers SAMSUNG Introduction and Background of the Company This paper is about the micro and macro factors affecting the chosen company with particular focus on Political, Environmental, Social, and Technological (PEST) analysis. Samsung is one of the world largest companies that mainly focus on electronic products to their worldwide clients. The company was founded as a minor business in 1938, before advancing and expanding their operations in 1947 after expanding to Seoul (Chang, 2011). Today, the company is a major electronics manufacturer and distributor with their headquarters in Seoul, South Korea. Samsung consists of various ancillary allied firms that all operate under the brand name of Samsung. Some of the noted ancillary firms include, but not limited to, Samsung electronics, Samsung C T, Samsung engineering, and Samsung heavy industries. Among these, Samsung electronics is the most recognized subsidiary of Samsung Corporation due to its worldwide brand. Currently, Samsung operates in the consumer appliances and consumer electroni cs, manufactures, and other range of products such as phones, Television, Washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners, calculators, among other products. In the consumer electronics section, Samsung Company has gained a giant market share for itself, resulting in significant profits. Many people have linked the tremendous growth of Samsung over a relativelyShow MoreRelatedMicro Marketing And Macro Marketing1510 Words   |  7 PagesMicro-Marketing and Macro-marketing have to completely different meanings. According Basic Marketing the 9th edition by William D. 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Political factors Political factors refer to the stability of the political environment and the attitudes of politicalRead MoreThe Importance Of Entering An International Market Through A Complete Micro / Macro Analysis On The Company And The Country996 Words   |  4 Pagesprocesses, transfer of knowledge and opportunities to reach a new market,† is increasingly important to growing companies of today (Khojastehpour and Johns, 2014). Once the domestic market has been saturated, a company must internationalize to continue increasing market share, grow their brand, improve customer relationships, and enhance sales. 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The general scope of environmental scanning is that it is a component of global environmental analysis. While analyses are typically carried out on the macro environment, the micro environment still has an important role to play. In summary, the macro environment is involved with the industries, companies, markets, clients and competitors, while the micro environment can be represented by the suppliers, competitorsRead MoreMarketing Concept Of Marketing And Mar keting1413 Words   |  6 Pagesalso includes marketing research and advertising. The marketing concept is the philosophy used by companies to analyse the needs of their customers so they can be better than the competition. As well as this they must also take into consideration the companies capabilities and the environment it is working in, as they can face the pressures of environmental changes. By using the marketing concept companies identify incoming changes and prepare itself to exploit them. The marketing concept is about matchingRead MoreUnderstanding Retail - identify the competitive factors in the retail environment in a selected organisation1610 Words   |  7 PagesRetail P4: Identify the competitive factors in the retail environment a selected organisation faces. Organisations are effected by many different competitive factors that they are forced to face. Organisations will try to strike competitive advantages by marketing using the fours P’s; product, price, place and promotion. The four P’s will influence all organisations to analyse the structure of their marketing as it is vital that they override the competitive factors between all businesses surroundingRead MoreMarketing within Pizza Express P10173101111 Words   |  5 PagesStreet (Soho), becoming the first pizza restaurant in Uk market. After a successful years the company were franchised in 1993 but in the 1996 were brought back and launched internationally, first branch in Ireland. Finally Pizza Express was bought for Gondola Group in 2003. The company has been leading the industry of pizza restaurant and has been one the most successful private restaurants companies with more than 400 restaurants in the Uk and 60 more internationally. (Who we are, 2013, www.pizzaexpressRead MoreCoca Col A Brand Of Multinational American Company1928 Words   |  8 Pagescola is a brand of multinational American company that produces beverages. This company does not only produce coca cola and other products but it also acts as a manufacturer, retailer, and marketer of the products manufactured. Many non-alcoholic beverages are also present in the company’s profile where syrups and non-alcoholic concentrates are few examples. The company is headquartered in Georgia in the state of Atlanta. The original product of the company for which it was established was a patentRead MoreAnalysis And Evaluation Of The Business And Financial Performance Of An Organization1365 Words    |  6 Pagesabout this degree and how to work on project. Reason for choosing this topic I glanced at information pack from OBU and in that they offered wide variety of topics to choose from evaluation and analysis of organisation to critical review of key factors affecting organisation or brands. But topic no. 8 made most sense to me which is â€Å"Analysis and evaluation of the business and financial performance of an organisation over a three year period†. Reason is my incline towards handling financial data and number

Example of Statement of the Problem in Research Paper

Example of statement of the problem in research paper is the description of a certain difficulty or lack that requires a solution or at least research, in order to see whether it can be properly solved. It can report on a condition that has to be improved, specific area of concern, or a problematic question existing in theory, in practice, or in the scholarly literature that needs meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. Example of statement of the problem in research paper usually comes at the research proposal and includes the outline of the basic facts of the addressing issue and an argument for its importance. Intellectual Property Rights and Foreign Direct Investment Nowadays, the problem of intellectual property has turned into one of the most aggravated topics of the disputes among the modern society. The main factor promoting the friction around this issue is the globalization of the economic activities along with the expansion of the international transactions, which involve knowledge-intensive products. In particular, this concerns the FDI decisions, which relationship with the intellectual property rights lacks proper empirical evidence. The issue of the intellectual property is of great importance to the contemporary communities and can be identified as relevant to the global economy due to the number of pivotal reasons. First of all, as it has been mentioned above, the majority of the international transactions involves the knowledge-intensive products, which are considered as an intellectual property. These products mainly refer to the technologies and innovations, including databases and electronic information, transfer of which has become one of the main processes in the global economy. Among the range of the market-based channels of the technology transfer foreign direct investment (FDI) is the most significant one. Thus, in these terms, the decisions on foreign direct investment can be claimed to be closely related to the intellectual property rights. Secondly, the globalization of the economic activities has turned the attention of the regional as well as global trading arrangements to the problems of regulatory convergence with the considerable emphasis on the intellectual property rights. This can be explained by the fact that stronger intellectual property is believed to stimulate the innovation in developing countries, promoting their growth and providing greater choice to the consumers around the world. Moreover, despite the controversy that persists over the international means of protecting the main information technologies, there is a commitment among the world countries to achieving strong protection of the intellectual property rights. Thus, the international commitments have fostered a movement toward the increase of the standards of protection of the intellectual property at a worldwide level. As a result, a great number of developing countries have begun to reform their regimes of intellectual property rights protection in response to the domestic and external pressures. Hence, the long-term global reformation of the intellectual property rights allows to predict that IPRs are likely to become essential for the successful foreign direct investment decisions in near future. Consequently, the issue of the necessity of protection of the intellectual property rights and their relationship with the foreign direct investment decisions is of high importance and requires proper understanding and exploration. For this purpose would serve the following research, findings of which will help to explore IPRs influence on the global economy and suggest the possible solutions for the international disputes on this topic. References Branstetter, L. Saggi, K. (2011). Intellectual Property Rights, Foreign Direct Investment and Industrial Development. The Economic Journal, 121(555), 1161-1191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2011.02440.x Kashcheeva, M. (2013). The role of foreign direct investment in the relation between intellectual property rights and growth. Oxford Economic Papers, 65(3), 699-720. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpt015 Liu, W. (2015). Intellectual Property Rights, FDI, RD and Economic Growth: A Cross-country Empirical Analysis. The World Economy, 39(7), 983-1004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/twec.12304 Pathak, S., Xavier-Oliveira, E., Laplume, A. (2013). Influence of intellectual property, foreign investment, and technological adoption on technology entrepreneurship. Journal Of Business Research, 66(10), 2090-2101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.02.035 Vanhonnaeker, L. (2015). Intellectual property rights as foreign direct investments. McGill University.

The Human Genome Project Free Essays

When populations start to die there are only so many to choose from for genes. A founder effect will then be created (Welsch 73). The Human Genome Project set out to identify all the genetic material in humans (Welsch 265). We will write a custom essay sample on The Human Genome Project or any similar topic only for you Order Now Another type of variation is different from genes it is physiological. Our blood type is a protein on our red blood cells and delivers oxygen and immune responses ( Welsch 267). We are only able to give blood to those who have our same blood type unless we have the blood type that is the universal donor. We have a friend who has suffered miscarriages, the most recent was 26 weeks along. Her body keeps rejecting the baby and they are not sure what the cause is. They are sure that it is not the RH factor. The white blood cells also have their own set of proteins, the human leukocyte antigen system (HLA). This system protects our bodies from foreign objects or infectious agents (Welsch 268). Even within our families we are varied because we will not all have the same combination of the system. We all react to infections and diseases differently. My husband is highly allergic to artificial smells. His system seems to be in overdrive. When he was in the military his bunk mate sprayed scented aerosol deodorant and his throat closed up. He then realized he could not handle anything artificial. My friend’s cousin had a double lung transplant last year. Several months after her transplant she got an infection and her body rejected her new lungs and she passed away. I think her rejection to the new lungs was because of the differences in the HLA system of her body and the donor’s. Our bodies also adapt and look different from others in our skin tone and our body types. These traits are not as significant in our bodily functions but are varied nonetheless. W all can have different hair color, skin color, and shape and sizes. Our skin does not really have color, it has a pigment called melanin ( Welsch 271). Depending on where the person lived they may have more melanin production and have darker skin. Some can also be tall and skin or short and chubby. We measure this through the anthropometry. It helps determine the variations we see. We put these measurements in the cormic index, which is sitting height to standing height ( Welsch 273). The intemembral index is the ratio of arm length to leg length (Welsch 273). Body fat is determined by the BMI or body mass index. A person can be too skinny or too fat and have a BMI that is not healthy. Another variation is race. This our society’s system for classifying people based on how they look. These differences are believed to reflect the root of genetic and biological differences. We also adapt to the environments we encounter. We can either allow our environment to change us or we can change the environment. To survive we have to figure out what needs to change and react accordingly. We have to have a certain plasticity. We all change during our lifetime and it comes somewhat from our surroundings. We can perform niche construction and make our environment suitable to our living conditions. On the farm my in laws own they do several things to insure their success. They have to give the cows shots to make sure they are healthy enough for reproduction and the babies will be healthy enough to be sold. They take care of the grass and the other parts of the land to ensure the cows are fed during the spring, summer and fall. They make sure that there is enough hay to feed them during the winter. As parents we have the ability to help our children adapt. To set them up for success in life as humans. We teach our children how to cook, clean, read, and write. The ability to care for themselves spans across generations. They will teach their own children these abilities to adapt and survive in the world around them. We pass this on to them through extra-genetic inheritance. We have a new emergence of new species through speciation. Differences can be so vast that it becomes a totally different species. Such as the dog and the wolf. Both have canine but the wolf is considered a different species. Evolution takes place as we experience different things in our culture. We have to adapt as our culture changes. The constructivist approach shows that our biology is a process of construction (Welsch 239). Our bodies work in combination with our genes to affect how genes can be expressed or epigenetic system of inheritance ( Welsch 240). When our genes are altered we can pass those down to our children affecting how their bodies work and how they behave. The way we raise our children affects how they will behave as adults. If we are nurturing, loving and kind to our children almost all of the time these will be the traits they possess unless they have something else going on biologically. If we behave negative with our children and this is all they see they will in turn possess those traits. This is the behavioral system of inheritance. We also store symbols and communicate them with others around us, showing the world our understanding through them. The symbols we use come from the symbolic system of inheritance. Through manipulating the world around us and changing the world around us it is important to our biocultural evolution. Change is an important part of who we are. Just as when we move into a new home, a new town, new school, and even a new job we change and construct the environment to fit our needs. We do certain things so we can fit in and feel comfortable. It allows us to thrive. We even try to change the land we live on. Another aspect of biocultural evolution is the evolution of our behaviors. Sociobiology explains our behaviors as related to our biological component (Welsch 245). Our behavior can also be influenced by the earth and social things going on around us. This comes from the human behavioral ecology (HBE) (Welsch 246). We adapt our behavior to our society so that we can fit and continue to evolve. Our behaviors are directly connected to our biological self. This comes from biological determinism (Welsch 247). Some of them come forward or (emergence) based on who we see and interact with in our daily lives. We adapt and change through our diet, moving to different places, and sometimes we even change our bodies through modification to make ourselves fit in. Just like runway models who extreme diet and workout to be tiny enough to be considered for the runway. This shapes our cultures around the world and how we all view each other. Everyone in this world is so unique. No two people even family members will be completely identical. Our bodies adapt and varied through the generations to be continued successfully. We all try to fit in with our behaviors so that our true biological self can come forward. We need to be conscious in the things we teach our children because they will be the next generation and bring forth a new culture. Works Cited Welsch, Robert Louis, et al. Anthropology: Asking Questions about Human Origins, Diversity, and Culture. Oxford University Press, 2017. How to cite The Human Genome Project, Papers The Human Genome Project Free Essays string(42) " fewer than predicted by many scientists\." The Human Genome Project (HGP) is a project undertaken with a goal to understand the genetic make-up of the human species by determining the DNA sequence of the human genome and the genome of a few model organisms. The project began in 1990 and, by some definitions, it was completed in 2003. It was one of the biggest investigational projects in the history of science. We will write a custom essay sample on The Human Genome Project or any similar topic only for you Order Now The mapping of the human genes was an important step in the development of medicines and other aspects of health care. Most of the genome DNA sequencing for the Human Genome Project was done by researchers at universities and research centers in the the United States and Great Britain, with other genome DNA sequencing done independently by the private company Celera Genomics. The HGP was originally aimed at the more than three billion nucleotides contained in a haploid reference human genome. Recently several groups have announced efforts to extend this to diploid human genomes including the International HapMap Project, Applied Biosystems, Perlegen, Illumina, JCVI, Personal Genome Project, and Roche-454. The â€Å"genome† of any given individual (except for identical twins and cloned animals) is unique; mapping â€Å"the human genome† involves sequencing multiple variations of each gene. The project did not study all of the DNA found in human cells; some heterochromatic areas (about 8% of the total) remain un-sequenced. International HGP Initiation of the Project was the culmination of several years of work supported by the Department of Energy, in particular workshops in 1984 [1] and 1986 and a subsequent initiative the Department of Energy. 2] This 1986 report stated boldly, â€Å"The ultimate goal of this initiative is to understand the human genome† and â€Å"Knowledge of the human genome is as necessary to the continuing progress of medicine and other health sciences as knowledge of human anatomy has been for the present state of medicine. † Candidate technologies were already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1985. [3 ] James D. Watson was Head of the National Center for Human Genome Research at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States starting from 1988. Largely due to his disagreement with his boss, Bernadine Healy, over the issue of patenting genes, he was forced to resign in 1992. He was replaced by Francis Collins in April 1993, and the name of the Center was changed to the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) in 1997. The $3-billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the United States Department of Energy and the U. S. National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years. In addition to the United States, the international consortium comprised geneticists in China, France, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom. Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics (especially in sequence analysis), as well as major advances in computing technology, a ‘rough draft’ of the genome was finished in 2000 (announced jointly by then US president Bill Clinton and British Prime Minister Tony Blair on June 26, 2000). [4] Ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome in April 2003, 2 years earlier than planned. [5] In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project, when the sequence of the last chromosome was published in the journal Nature. 6] There are multiple definitions of the â€Å"complete sequence of the human genome†. According to some of these definitions, the genome has already been completely sequenced, and according to other definitions, the genome has yet to be completely sequenced. There have been multiple popular press articles reporting that the genome was â€Å"complete. â €  The genome has been completely sequenced using the definition employed by the International Human Genome Project. A graphical history of the human genome project shows that most of the human genome was complete by the end of 2003. However, there are a number of regions of the human genome that can be considered unfinished. First, the central regions of each chromosome, known as centromeres, are highly repetitive DNA sequences that are difficult to sequence using current technology. The centromeres are millions (possibly tens of millions) of base pairs long, and for the most part these are entirely un-sequenced. Second, the ends of the chromosomes, called telomeres, are also highly repetitive, and for most of the 46 chromosome ends these too are incomplete. We do not know precisely how much sequence remains before we reach the telomeres of each chromosome, but as with the centromeres, current technology does not make it easy to get there. Third, there are several loci in each individual’s genome that contain members of multigene families that are difficult to disentangle with shotgun sequencing methodologies – these multigene families often encode proteins important for immune functions. It is likely that the centromeres and telomeres will remain un-sequenced until new technology is developed that facilitates their sequencing. Other than these regions, there remain a few dozen gaps scattered around the genome, some of them rather large, but there is hope that all these will be closed in the next couple of years. In summary: our best estimates of total genome size indicate that about 92% of the genome has been completed . Most of the remaining DNA is highly repetitive and unlikely to contain genes, but we cannot truly know until we sequence all of it. Understanding the functions of all the genes and their regulation is far from complete. The roles of junk DNA, the evolution of the genome, the differences between individuals, and many other questions are still the subject of intense study by laboratories all over the world. Goals The goals of the original HGP were not only to determine more than 3 billion base pairs in the human genome with a minimal error rate, but also to identify all the genes in this vast amount of data. This part of the project is still ongoing, although a preliminary count indicates about 30,000 genes in the human genome, which is fewer than predicted by many scientists. You read "The Human Genome Project" in category "Papers" Another goal of the HGP was to develop faster, more efficient methods for DNA sequencing and sequence analysis and the transfer of these technologies to industry. The sequence of the human DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the Internet. The U. S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as Genbank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins. Other organizations such as the University of California, Santa Cruz[1], and Ensembl[2] present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. Computer programs have been developed to analyze the data, because the data themselves are difficult to interpret without such programs. The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in raw DNA sequence is called genome annotation and is the domain of bioinformatics. While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high-throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. The best current technologies for annotation make use of statistical models that take advantage of parallels between DNA sequences and human language, using concepts from computer science such as formal grammars. Another, often overlooked, goal of the HGP is the study of its ethical, legal, and social implications. It is important to research these issues and find the most appropriate solutions before they become large dilemmas whose effect will manifest in the form of major political concerns. All humans have unique gene sequences; therefore the data published by the HGP does not represent the exact sequence of each and every individual’s genome. It is the combined genome of a small number of anonymous donors. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences among individuals. Most of the current effort in identifying differences among individuals involves single nucleotide polymorphisms and the HapMap. How it was accomplished Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health in the United States, and the UK charity, the Wellcome Trust, who funded the Sanger Institute (then the Sanger Centre) in Great Britain, as well as numerous other groups from around the world. The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 base pairs in length. These pieces are called â€Å"bacterial artificial chromosomes†, or BACs, because they can be inserted into bacteria where they are copied by the bacterial DNA replication machinery. Each of these pieces was then sequenced separately as a small â€Å"shotgun† project and then assembled. The larger, 150,000 base pairs go together to create chromosomes. This is known as the â€Å"hierarchical shotgun† approach, because the genome is first broken into relatively large chunks, which are then mapped to chromosomes before being selected for sequencing. Celera Genomics HGP In 1998, a similar, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher Craig Venter and his firm Celera Genomics. The $300 million Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion publicly funded project. Celera used a riskier technique called whole genome shotgun sequencing, which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes of up to six million base pairs in length, but not for anything nearly as large as the three thousand million base pair human genome. Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on â€Å"only 200-300† genes, but later amended this to seeking â€Å"intellectual property protection† on â€Å"fully-characterized important structures† amounting to 100-300 targets. The firm eventually filed preliminary (â€Å"place-holder†) patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes. Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 â€Å"Bermuda Statement,† by releasing new data quarterly (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or commercial use of the data. In March 2000, President Clinton announced that the genome sequence could not be patented, and should be made freely available to all researchers. The statement sent Celera’s stock plummeting and dragged down the biotechnology-heavy Nasdaq. The biotechnology sector lost about $50 billion in market capitalization in two days. Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of Nature (which published the publicly funded project’s scientific paper)[7] and Science (which published Celera’s paper[8]) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence. These drafts covered about 83% of the genome (90% of the euchromatic regions with 150,000 gaps and the order and orientation of many segments not yet established). In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, press releases announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to ~92% of the sequence currently. The competition proved to be very good for the project, spurring the public groups to modify their strategy in order to accelerate progress. The rivals initially agreed to pool their data, but the agreement ell apart when Celera refused to deposit its data in the unrestricted public database GenBank. Celera had incorporated the public data into their genome, but forbade the public effort to use Celera data. HGP is the most well known of many international genome projects aimed at sequencing the DNA of a specific organism. While the human DNA sequence offers the most tangible benefits, important dev elopments in biology and medicine are predicted as a result of the sequencing of model organisms, including mice, fruit flies, zebrafish, yeast, nematodes, plants, and many microbial organisms and parasites. In 2004, researchers from the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC) of the HGP announced a new estimate of 20,000 to 25,000 genes in the human genome. [9] Previously 30,000 to 40,000 had been predicted, while estimates at the start of the project reached up to as high as 2,000,000. The number continues to fluctuate and it is now expected that it will take many years to agree on a precise value for the number of genes in the human genome. History In 1976, the genome of the virus Bacteriophage MS2 was the first complete genome to be determined, by Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent (Ghent, Belgium). 10] The idea for the shotgun technique came from the use of an algorithm that combined sequence information from many small fragments of DNA to reconstruct a genome. This technique was pioneered by Frederick Sanger to sequence the genome of the Phage ? -X174, a tiny virus called a bacteriophage that was the first fully sequenced genome (DNA-sequence) in 1977. [11] The technique was called shotgun sequencing because the genome was broken into millions of pieces as if it had been blasted with a shotgun. In order to scale up the method, both the sequencing and genome assembly had to be automated, as they were in the 1980s. Those techniques were shown applicable to sequencing of the first free-living bacterial genome (1. 8 million base pairs) of Haemophilus influenzae in 1995 [12] and the first animal genome (~100 Mbp) [13] It involved the use of automated sequencers, longer individual sequences using approximately 500 base pairs at that time. Paired sequences separated by a fixed distance of around 2000 base pairs which were critical elements enabling the development f the first genome assembly programs for reconstruction of large regions of genomes (aka ‘contigs’). Three years later, in 1998, the announcement by the newly-formed Celera Genomics that it would scale up the shotgun sequencing method to the human genome was greeted with skepticism in some circles. The shotgun technique breaks the DNA into fragments of various sizes, ranging from 2,000 to 300,000 base pairs in length, forming what is called a DNA â€Å"library†. Using an automated DNA sequencer the DNA is read in 800bp lengths from both ends of each fragment. Using a complex genome assembly algorithm and a supercomputer, the pieces are combined and the genome can be reconstructed from the millions of short, 800 base pair fragments. The success of both the public and privately funded effort hinged upon a new, more highly automated capillary DNA sequencing machine, called the Applied Biosystems 3700, that ran the DNA sequences through an extremely fine capillary tube rather than a flat gel. Even more critical was the development of a new, larger-scale genome assembly program, which could handle the 30-50 million sequences that would be required to sequence the entire human genome with this method. At the time, such a program did not exist. One of the first major projects at Celera Genomics was the development of this assembler, which was written in parallel with the construction of a large, highly automated genome sequencing factory. The first version of this assembler was demonstrated in 2000, when the Celera team joined forces with Professor Gerald Rubin to sequence the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster using the whole-genome shotgun method[14]. At 130 million base pairs, it was at least 10 times larger than any genome previously shotgun assembled. One year later, the Celera team published their assembly of the three billion base pair human genome. How it was accomplished The IHGSC used pair-end sequencing plus whole-genome shotgun mapping of large (~100 Kbp) plasmid clones and shotgun sequencing of smaller plasmid sub-clones plus a variety of other mapping data to orient and check the assembly of each human chromosome[7]. The Celera group tried â€Å"whole-genome shotgun† sequencing without using the additional mapping scaffolding[8], but by including shredded public data raised questions [15]. Whose genome was sequenced? In the IHGSC international public-sector Human Genome Project (HGP), researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones from many different libraries were used in the overall project, with most of those libraries being created by Dr. Pieter J. de Jong. It has been informally reported, and is well known in the genomics community, that much of the DNA for the public HGP came from a single anonymous male donor from Buffalo, New York (code name RP11). [16] HGP scientists used white blood cells from the blood of 2 male and 2 female donors (randomly selected from 20 of each) — each donor yielding a separate DNA library. One of these libraries (RP11) was used considerably more than others, due to quality considerations. One minor technical issue is that male samples contain only half as much DNA from the X and Y chromosomes as from the other 22 chromosomes (the autosomes); this happens because each male cell contains only one X and one Y chromosome, not two like other chromosomes (autosomes). (This is true for nearly all male cells not just sperm cells). Although the main sequencing phase of the HGP has been completed, studies of DNA variation continue in the International HapMap Project, whose goal is to identify patterns of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) groups (called haplotypes, or â€Å"haps†). The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals: Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese people in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d’Etude du Polymorphisms Humain (CEPH) resource, which consisted of residents of the United States having ancestry from Western and Northern Europe. In the Celera Genomics private-sector project, DNA from five different individuals were used for sequencing. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, Craig Venter, later acknowledged (in a public letter to the journal Science) that his DNA was one of those in the pool[17]. On September 4th, 2007, a team led by Craig Venter, published his complete DNA sequence[18], unveiling the six-billion-letter genome of a single individual for the first time. Benefits The work on interpretation of genome data is still in its initial stages. It is anticipated that detailed knowledge of the human genome will provide new avenues for advances in medicine and biotechnology. Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished. For example, a number of companies, such as Myriad Genetics started offering easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including breast cancer, disorders of hemostasis, cystic fibrosis, liver diseases and many others. Also, the etiologies for cancers, Alzheimer’s disease and other areas of clinical interest are considered likely to benefit from genome information and possibly may lead in the long term to significant advances in their management. There are also many tangible benefits for biological scientists. For example, a researcher investigating a certain form of cancer may have narrowed down his/her search to a particular gene. By visiting the human genome database on the worldwide web, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) the three-dimensional structure of its product, its function(s), its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice or yeast or fruit flies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, diseases associated with this gene or other datatypes. Further, deeper understanding of the disease processes at the level of molecular biology may determine new therapeutic procedures. Given the established importance of DNA in molecular biology and its central role in determining the fundamental operation of cellular processes, it is likely that expanded knowledge in this area will facilitate medical advances in numerous areas of clinical interest that may not have been possible without them. The analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organisms is also opening new avenues in the study of the theory of evolution. In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of molecular biology; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the ribosome and organelles, the development of embryos with body plans, the vertebrate immune system) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and our closest relatives (the primates, and indeed the other mammals) are expected to be illuminated by the data from this project. The Human Genome Diversity Project, spinoff research aimed at mapping the DNA that varies between human ethnic groups, which was rumored to have been halted, actually did continue and to date has yielded new conclusions. In the future, HGDP could possibly expose new data in disease surveillance, human development and anthropology. HGDP could unlock secrets behind and create new strategies for managing the vulnerability of ethnic groups to certain diseases (see race in biomedicine). It could also show how human populations have adapted to these vulnerabilities. How to cite The Human Genome Project, Papers

Capital Budgeting Its Different Concepts †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Capital Budgeting Its Different Concepts? Answer: Introducation The management of the company shall take an effective and the informed decision. It is because the functioning and the operation of the company will only go when the management of the company remains actively involved in the day to day functioning of the company. Otherwise the company will no longer work on the going concern and with the passage of time it will go under liquidation or winding up. There are many techniques of capital budgeting which includes net present value, payback period, discounted payback period, Internal rate of return, Profitability Index and other similar ratios. Apart from the capital budgeting there are other concepts which the management adopts for the completion of the decision making function. These are sensitivity analysis, scenario analysis, break - even analysis and simulation techniques. Through this report at first the reasons has been discussed as to how the management decision can be related to the capital budgeting techniques and in the second th e relation of the capital budgeting techniques with the different concepts have been detailed. It is done by making reference to the benefits of the capital budgeting techniques so employed by the management. The report has been prepared with the above details and the appropriate conclusion has been given. Capital Budgeting And Its Relation The term capital budgeting is defined as the attempt made by the management to know the future of the company. In other words, the capital budgeting is the process which will help the company to evaluate whether the proposed investment of the company in the long term assets or the projects is feasible or not. These long term assets generally includes new plant and machinery, new equipment, new launch of the product and the long term projects includes solar power project or any other projects of the similar nature. There are two premises of adopting the capital budgeting process (Bennouna, Meredith and Marchant, 2010). One is related to checking of the viability or feasibility of the long term assets or long term projects and other one is related to checking of increase in the wealth of the shareholder of the company. Meaning And Type Of Capital Budgeting Techniques The capital budgeting process is performed by the various numbers of techniques or methods. These methods or techniques are described as the Capital budgeting techniques. These techniques shall be performed in the defined manner and shall be used only where its applicability is present (Burns and Walker, 2015). Each of the capital budgeting techniques has different calculations and the different criteria for making of decision by the management. Following are the capital budgeting decision techniques adopted by every company depending upon the nature of the proposed investment: Net Present Value The method is known in the abbreviated form as NPV. This technique makes the company to estimate the future cash flows of the proposed investment that the company propose to undertake. The formula to calculate the NPV is the difference between the present value of cash inflows and present value of cash outflows. The present value of cash outflows is the initial cash outlay which the company is required to pay in order to purchase the investment or the project. The present value of cash inflows is determined by applying the present value factor identified at the given discounting rate with the net cash inflows after tax. The discounting rate is generally the cost of capital of the company or commonly known as the capitalization rate (Farragher, 2010). Internal Rate of Return It is defined as the rate of return which the new proposed investment or the project will give to the company making the investment. As per the calculative part, the rate of return at which the present value of both of the cash inflows and cash outflows are found equal then it is determined as the Internal rate of return. The internal rate of return is compared by the company with the cost of capital that the company has reported as the capitalization rate. Payback period Payback period is defined as the period within which the initial outlay made by the company at the start of the project or the proposed investment can be recovered. In other words, it is the technique through which the company will be able to know as to within what time the company will be able to recover the cash outflow. In case of the equal cash inflows in future for all the future years, this method can be used. In case of the irregular cash flows in the future years then the company shall follow the method of the discounting payback period. In this method, the future cash inflows are discounted at the capitalization rate and then the cash inflows have been set with cumulative figures and then discounted payback period is identified using the formula. Profitability Index The method of profitability index is considered as the major method for determining the efficiency of the proposed investment. It is calculated by dividing the present value of cash inflows by the present value of cash outflows. , Relation With Management Decision Making The aforesaid capital budgeting techniques are closely linked with the decision making function of the management of the company. It is because each of the techniques of the capital budgeting so described provides the decisive factor to the management of the company which helped the management of the company to take an informed and timely decision. Thus, the basis of the relation between the capital budgeting techniques and the decision making function of the management is only the decision criteria that the each capital budgeting techniques provides and equip the management as to whether to go with the project or not. The decision criterion that has developed the relation between the two has been discussed below: The first technique that has been prescribed is the Net Present Value. As per the method of the Net Present Value, in case the value of the net present value comes with the positive figure than the project is accepted and in case it comes out with the positive figure than the project will be rejected. In case the net present value figures comes out as zero, then the company has the right to remain indifferent to the project as there will neither be the gain nor will there be the situation of loss. Thus, in this way the management will be able to take an effective decision. The second technique that has been discussed is the Internal Rate of Return. The decision criteria of this technique is that if the Internal rate of return so calculated exceeds the cost of capital of the company then the project may be accepted and in case it falls short of the cost of capital of the company then the project may be rejected. The third technique is the payback period. The decisive factor in this techniques is that in case the payback period comes out as low then the project will be accepted and in case the payback period comes out as high near to the end of the future cash inflows then the project shall rejected. The last technique is the profitability index. The decision criterion under this method is that if after the division of present value of cash inflows by the present value of cash outflows the result comes out as greater than one then the project will be selected. In case the resultant figure comes out as lesser than one, then the project shall be out rightly rejected. In this manner, the decision making activity conducted by the management of the company is closely link with the capital budgeting techniques and shall make use of the techniques in the best possible manner. Relation With Different Concepts Apart from the relation with the management decision making function, the capital budgeting techniques are related to the following concepts: Sensitivity Analysis Sensitivity analysis helps the analyst to determine how far the dependant variable will have an effect because of the change in the independent variable subject to the remaining information as constant. It helps the company to analyze the result of the decision with the same set of constant variables. The sensitivity analysis is performed in the capital budgeting techniques only. Like in the net present value method, the sensitivity analysis helps the company to understand as to how the net present value will be affected in case the selling price gets decreased by 10% or the variable costs get increased by 10% and similar other situations. In this way, sensitivity analysis is linked to the capital budgeting techniques (Schall, Sundem. and Geijsbeek., 2008). Scenario Analysis The scenario analysis helps the management to have the better decision by giving the all possible outcomes which is related to the project to the proposed investment. It does not deal with the past rather it considers the past history so as to estimate the future events that may occur like increase in the cost of capital of the company or increase in the fixed cost of the company and etc. While performing the capital budgeting techniques the company shall take into consideration the different scenarios in the calculation of the Net present value and other techniques so that the company can take informed and an effective decision (Ross, 2002). In this way, scenario analysis is linked to the capital budgeting techniques. Break Even Analysis The break even analysis helps the company to analyze the point at which their sales revenue will be able to generate that much profit which will just be equivalent to the expenses both direct and indirect. In other words break even is not the point at which the company is incurring a loss nor having any gains, only generating the income through which they will be able to meet out their costs. This concept is very closely linked with one of the technique which is known as Net present value. If the net present value comes out as zero then it will be treated as the company has reached the net present value breakeven (Charnes, 2003). The importance of breakeven will be received only when it is linked to the capital budgeting technique of the net present value. Simulation Techniques Simulation analysis is the technique through which the large number of the possible outcomes is derived. At first the large number of the possible scenarios is defined using the various variable of the project and then through the probability distribution method of statistical measures large number of outcomes is delivered. These possible outcomes are linked with the capital budgeting technique of the net present value to know as to how far the net present value gets affected by the number of outcomes (Porter, 2012; Salazar and Sen., 2008.). If the risk is also adjusted with these four concepts then there link with the capital budgeting techniques will then become stronger. In this way, the management of the company uses the aforesaid concepts along with the capital budgeting techniques so as to make an effective and efficient decision (Smith, 2004). Conclusion The capital budgeting techniques are the backbone for making the effective decision of the company and have the pure direct relationship. Similarly the different concepts that the management of the company usually utilizes are closely linked with the capital budgeting techniques. Although all the four concepts consists of different ways for providing different information to the management of the company but it is calculated and arrived from the result of the capital budgeting techniques. Thus, to conclude with the study, the management shall adopt the capital budgeting technique uniformly. On the basis of the aforesaid analysis and discussion, it is recommended to have the capital budgeting techniques as an integral part for making the effective and timely decision. References Bennouna, K., Meredith, G.G. and Marchant, T., 2010. Improved capital budgeting decision making: evidence from Canada.Management decision,48(2), pp.225-247. Burns, R. and Walker, J., 2015. Capital budgeting surveys: the future is now. Charnes, A.., 2003. Breakeven budgeting and programming to goals.Journal of Accounting Research, pp.16-43. Farragher, E.J., 2010. The association between the use of sophisticated capital budgeting practices and corporate performance.The Engineering Economist,46(4), pp.300-311. Porter, M.E., 2012 Capital choices: Changing the way America invests in industry.Journal of Applied Corporate Finance,5(2), pp.4-16. Ross, S.A., 2002.Corporate finance(Vol. 7). New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Salazar, R.C. and Sen, S.K., 2008. A simulation model of capital budgeting under uncertainty.Management Science, pp.B161-B179. Schall, L.D., Sundem, G.L. and Geijsbeek, W.R., 2008. Survey and analysis of capital budgeting methods.The journal of finance,33(1), pp.281-287. Smith, D.J., 2004. Incorporating risk into capital budgeting decisions using simulation.Management decision,32(9), pp.20-26.